Tetum language

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Tetun Dili

Tetun Prasa; Tétum Praça (Portuguese)

Tetun Dili, Tetun Prasa

Native to

East Timor

Native
speakers

390,000 (2009)[1]
L2:
570,000 in East Timor [2]

Language
family

Austronesian

Malayo-Polynesian

Central–Eastern

Timoric

Tetumic

Tetun
Dili

Dialects

Belunese (Tetun Belu)

Terik (Tetun Terik)

Writing
system

Latin (Tetum
alphabet)

Official status

Official
language in

East Timor

Regulated by

National Institute of
Linguistics

Language codes

ISO
639-3

tdt

Glottolog

tetu1246

Distribution of Tetum Prasa mother-tongue
speakers in East Timor

This article contains IPA
phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering
support, you may see question
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Tetum (Portuguese), Tetun (Lian Tetun)

Lian Tetun

Native to

West Timor, East Timor

Native
speakers

500,000, mostly in
Indonesia (2010–2011)[1]
50,000
L2-speakers in Indonesia and East Timor

Language
family

Austronesian

Malayo-Polynesian

Central–Eastern

Timor–Babar

Tetumic

Tetum (Portuguese), Tetun (Lian
Tetun)

Dialects

Belunese (Tetun Belu)

Terik (Tetun Terik)

Official status

Official
language in

East
Timor

Recognised
minority
language in

Indonesia
(East
Nusa Tenggara)

Language codes

ISO
639-2

tet

ISO
639-3

tet

Glottolog

tetu1245

Distribution in East Timor of Tetum
Belu (west) and Tetum Terik (southeast). The majority of Tetun
speakers, who live in West Timor, are not shown.

Tetum (Portuguese:
Tetum Portuguese
pronunciation: [ˈt̪et̪ũ],;[3]
Tetum: Tetun Tetum
pronunciation: [ˈt̪et̪un̪]) is an Austronesian
language spoken on the island of Timor.
It is spoken in Belu
Regency in Indonesian
West
Timor, and across the border in East
Timor, where it is one of the two official
languages.

In real terms there are two main forms of Tetum as a language:

Tetum Terik, which is a more indigenous form of Tetum marked by
different word choice, less foreign influence and other characteristics such
as verb conjugation

Tetum/n Prasa (market Tetum from the word praça in
Portuguese meaning town square) or Tetum/n Dili (given its
widespread usage in the capital Dili). This is the Tetum-based creole (heavily
influenced by Portuguese) that developed in Dili during colonial rule as local
Tetum speakers came into contact with Portuguese missionaries, traders and
colonial rulers. In East Timor Tetun Dili is widely spoken fluently as
a second language.

Without previous contact, Tetum Terik and Tetun Dili are not
immediately mutually intelligible, mainly because of the large number of
Portuguese origin words used in Tetun Dili.[4]
Besides some grammatical simplification, Tetun Dili has been greatly influenced
by the vocabulary and to a small extent by the grammar of Portuguese, the
other official language of East Timor.

Contents

1 Nomenclature

2 History and
dialects

3 Vocabulary

3.1 Indigenous

3.2 From
Portuguese

3.3 From
Malay

3.4 Numerals

3.5 Combinations

4 Basic phrases

5 Grammar

5.1 Morphology

5.1.1 Personal
pronouns

5.1.2 Nouns and
pronouns

5.1.2.1 Plural

5.1.2.2 Definiteness

5.1.2.3 Possessive/genitive

5.1.2.4 Inclusive and
exclusive "we"

5.1.2.5 Nominalization

5.1.3 Adjectives

5.1.3.1 Derivation from
nouns

5.1.3.2 Gender

5.1.3.3 Comparatives and
superlatives

5.1.4 Adverbs

5.1.5 Prepositions and
circumpositions

5.1.6 Verbs

5.1.6.1 Copula and
negation

5.1.6.2 Interrogation

5.1.6.3 Derivation from
nouns and adjectives

5.1.6.4 Conjugations and
inflections (in Tetun-Terik)

5.2 Tenses

5.2.1 Past

5.2.2 Future

5.3 Aspects

5.3.1 Perfect

5.3.2 Progressive

5.4 Imperative

6 Orthography and
phonology

7 See also

8 References

9 External
links

Nomenclature[edit]

The English form "Tetum" is derived from Portuguese, rather than from modern
Tetum. Consequently, some people regard "Tetun" as more appropriate.[5]
Although this coincides with the favoured Indonesian form, and the variant with
"m" has a longer history in English, "Tetun" has also been used by some
Portuguese-educated Timorese, such as José
Ramos-Horta and Carlos
Filipe Ximenes Belo.

Similar disagreements over nomenclature have emerged regarding the names of
other languages, such as Swahili/Kiswahili
and Punjabi/Panjabi.

History and
dialects[edit]

Languages
of Timor
Island. Tetum is in yellow.

According to linguist Geoffrey Hull, Tetum has four dialects:[6]

Tetun-Dili, or Tetun-Prasa (literally "city Tetum"), is
spoken in the capital, Dili,
and its surroundings, in the north of the country. Because of its simpler
grammar than other varieties of Tetun, extensive Portuguese loanwords, and
supposed creole-like features, Ethnologue and some researchers classify
it as a Tetun-based creole.[7][8]
This position, however, is also disputed in that while Tetun-Dili may exhibit
simpler grammar, this does not mean that Tetun-Dili is a creole.[10][11]
According to Ethnologue, there were 50,000 Tetun-Dili speakers in East
Timor in 2004.[6]

Tetun-Terik is spoken in the south and southwestern coastal
regions. According to Ethnologue, there were 50,000 Tetun-Terik
speakers in East Timor in 1995.[6]

Tetun-Belu, or the Belunese dialect, is spoken in a central strip
of the island of Timor from the Ombai
Strait to the Timor
Sea, and is split between East
Timor and West
Timor, where it is considered a bahasa daerah or "regional
language", with no official status in Indonesia,
although it is used by the Diocese
of Atambua
in Roman Catholic rites.

The Nana'ek dialect is spoken in the village of Metinaro, on the coastal
road between Dili and Manatuto.

Tetun-Belu and Tetun-Terik are not spoken outside their home
territories. Tetun-Prasa is the form of Tetum that is spoken throughout
East Timor. Although Portuguese was the official language of Portuguese Timor until
1975, Tetun-Prasa has always been the predominant lingua franca in the
eastern part of the island.

In the fifteenth century, before the arrival of the Portuguese, Tetum had
spread through central and eastern Timor as a contact language under
the aegis of the Belunese-speaking Kingdom
of Wehali, at that time the most powerful kingdom in the island. The
Portuguese (present in Timor from c. 1556) made most of their settlements in the
west, where Dawan was spoken, and it was not
until 1769, when the capital was moved from Lifau (Oecussi) to Dili that
they began to promote Tetum as an inter-regional language in their colony. Timor
was one of the few Portuguese colonies where a local language, and not a form of
Portuguese, became the lingua
franca: this is because Portuguese rule was indirect rather than direct, the
Europeans governing through local kings who embraced Catholicism and became
vassals of the King
of Portugal.[12]

When Indonesia
occupied East Timor between 1975 and 1999, declaring it "the Republic's 27th
Province", the use of Portuguese was banned, and Indonesian was
declared the sole official language, but the Roman Catholic
Church adopted Tetum as its liturgical language, making it a focus for
cultural and national identity.[13]
After the United
Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) took over
governance in September 1999, Tetun (Dili) was proclaimed the country's official
language, even though according to Encarta
Winkler Prins it was
only spoken by about 8% of the native population at the time, while the elite
(consisting of 20 to 30 families) spoke Portuguese and most adolescents had been
educated in Indonesian.[14]
When East Timor gained its independence on 20 May 2002, Tetum and Portuguese
were declared as official languages. The 2010 census found that Tetum Prasa had
385,269 native speakers on a total population of 1,053,971, meaning that the
share of native Tetum Prasa/Dili speakers had increased to 36.6% during the
2000s.[15]

In addition to regional varieties of Tetum in East Timor, there are
variations in vocabulary and pronunciation, partly due to Portuguese and
Indonesian influence. The Tetum spoken by East Timorese migrants in Portugal and Australia is more
Portuguese-influenced, as many of those speakers were not educated in
Indonesian.

Vocabulary[edit]

Indigenous[edit]

The Tetum name for East Timor is Timór Lorosa'e, which means "Timor of
the rising sun", or, less poetically, "East Timor"; lorosa'e comes from
loro "sun" and sa'e "to rise, to go up". The noun for "word" is
liafuan, from lia "voice" and fuan "fruit". Some more words
in Tetum:

Portuguese
(left) and Tetum (right). From a Portuguese course for Tetum speakers. The text
says: "Our generation sometimes has difficulty distinguishing between 'j' and
'z'"

aas – "high"

aat – "bad"

ai – "tree"

ai-fuan – "fruit"

ai-manas – "spice"

bee – "water"

belun – "friend"

boot – "big"

di'ak – "good"

domin – "love"

ema – "person, people"

fatin – "place"

feto – "woman"

foho – "mountain"

fulan – "moon/month"

funu – "war"

hamlaha – "hungry"

haan – "eat"

hahán – "food"

hemu – "drink"

hotu – "all"

ida – "one"

kalan – "night"

ki'ik – "little"

kraik – "low"

labarik – "child"

lafaek – "crocodile"

lais – "fast"

lalenok – "mirror"

laran – "inside"

lia – "language"

liafuan – "word" (from lian – voice and fuan –
fruit)

lian – "voice", "language"

loos – "true"

loron – "day"

lokraik – "afternoon"

tauk – "sacred"

mane – "man"

maromak – "god"

moris – "life"

rain – "country"

tasi – "sea"

tinan – "year"

tebes – "very"

teen – "dirt"

toos – "hard"

uluk – "first"

ulun – "head"

From Portuguese[edit]

Words derived from Portuguese:

adeus – "goodbye"

ajuda – "help"

aprende – "learn", from aprender

demais – "too much"

desizaun – "decision", from decisão

edukasaun – "education", from educação

envezde "instead of", from em vez de"

entaun – "so", "well", from então

eskola – "school", from escola

governu – "government", from governo

igreja – "church"

istória – "history", from história

jerasaun – "generation", from geração

keiju – "cheese", from queijo

komprende – "understand", from compreender

menus – "less", from menos

obrigadu/a – "thanks", from obrigado/a

paun – "bread", from pão

povu – "people", from povo

profesór – "teacher", from professor

relijiaun – "religion", from religião

semana – "week"

serbisu – "work", from serviço

serveja – "beer", from cerveja

tenke – "must", from tem que

xefe – "chief", from chefe

ideia – "idea"

múzika – "music", from música

esperiénsia – "experience", from experiência

teknolojia – "technology", from tecnologia

forsa – "force", from força

eletrisidade – "electricity", from electricidade

terrorizmu – "terrorism", from terrorismo

embaixada – "embassy"

organizasaun – "organization", from organização

arkitetura – "architecture", from arquitetura

kafé – "coffee", from café

ekipamentu – "equipment", from equipamento

prezidente – "president", from presidente

froñas – "pillowcases", from fronhas

aviaun – "airplane", from avião

kompañia – "company", from companhia

televizaun – "television", from televisão

enjeñaria – "engineering", from engenharia

korrupsaun – "corruption", from corrupção

polísia – "police", from polícia

fízika – "physics", from física

profisaun – "profession", from profissão

imposivel – "impossible", from impossível

gitarrista – "guitarist", from guitarrista

pasaporte – "passport", from passaporte

mensajen – "message", from mensagem

Natál – "Christmas", from Natal

From Malay[edit]

Tetum
(left) and Portuguese (right). From a Portuguese course for Tetum speakers. The
text says: "Some people pronounce wrongly '*meja', '*uja' and '*abuja'
instead of 'mesa',
'usa'
and 'abusa'."

As a result of Bazaar
Malay being a regional lingua franca, many words are derived from Malay, including:

atus "hundred", from ratus

barak "much", from banyak

bele "can", from boleh

besi "iron", from besi

udan "rain", from hujan

dalan "way" or "road", from jalan

fatu(k) "stone", from batu

fulan "moon" or "month" from bulan

malae "foreigner", from melayu "Malay"

manas "hot", from panas

rihun "thousand", from ribu

sala "wrong", from salah

tulun "help", from tolong

dapur "kitchen", from dapur

uma "house", from rumah

In addition, as a legacy of Indonesian
rule, other words of Malay origin have entered Tetum, through Indonesian.

Numerals[edit]

ida "one"

rua "two"

tolu "three"

haat "four"

lima "five"

neen "six"

hitu "seven"

ualu "eight"

sia "nine"

sanulu "ten"

ruanulu "twenty"

However, Tetum speakers often use Malay/Indonesian
or Portuguese
numbers instead, such as delapan or oito "eight" instead of
ualu, especially for numbers over one thousand.[citation
needed]

Combinations[edit]

Tetum has many hybrid words, which are combinations of
indigenous and Portuguese words. These often include an indigenous Tetum verb,
with a Portuguese suffix -dór (similar to '-er'). For example:

han ("to eat") handór – glutton.

hemu ("to drink") hemudór – heavy drinker.

hateten ("to say") hatetendór – chatterbox, talkative
person.

sisi ("to nag, pester") sisidór – nag, pest.

Basic phrases[edit]

Bondia – "Good morning" (from Portuguese Bom dia).

Di'ak ka lae? – "How are you?" (literally "Are you well or
not?")

Ha'u di'ak – "I'm fine."

Obrigadu/Obrigada – "Thank you", said by a male/female (from
Portuguese Obrigado/Obrigada).

Ita bele ko'alia Tetun? – "Do you speak Tetum?"

Loos – "Right"

Lae – "No."

Ha'u' [la] komprende – "I [do not] understand" (from
Portuguese compreender).

Grammar[edit]

Morphology[edit]

Personal
pronouns[edit]

Person

Number

Singular

Plural

1

Ha'u(-nia)

1INCL

Ita(-nia)

1EXCL

Ami(-nia)

2

O(-nia)

Imi(-nia)

2(polite)

Ita(-nia)

Ita boot sira(-nia)

3

Nia (ninia)

Sira(-nia)

[16]

Examples:

(1)

Hau

rona

asu

hatenu

1S

hear

dog

barking

"I hear the dog barking"

(2)

Nia

sosa

sigaru

3s

buys

cigarettes

"'He/She buys cigarettes'"

(3)

Ita

rona

rádiu?

1PL

hearing

radio

"Are we hearing a radio?"

(4)

Sira

moris

hotu

ka?

3P

alive

all

?

"Are they all alive?"

A common occurrence is to use titles such as Senhora for a woman or
names rather than pronouns when addressing people.

Example:

(1)

Senhora

mai

hori

bain-hira?

Mrs

come

PAST

when

"When did you arrive?"

[16]

The second person singular pronoun Ó is used generally with children,
friends or family, while with strangers or people of higher social status, Ita
or Ita boot is used.[17]

Example:

(1)

Nina,

Ó

iha

nebee?

Nina

2s.FAM

LOC

where

"Nina, where are you?"

Nouns and
pronouns[edit]

Plural[edit]

The plural is not normally marked on nouns, but the word sira "they"
can express it when necessary.

feto "woman/women" → feto sira "women"

However, the plural ending -s of nouns of Portuguese origin is
sometimes retained.

Estadus Unidus – United States (from Estados Unidos)

Nasoens Unidas – United Nations (from Nações Unidas)

Definiteness[edit]

Tetum has an optional indefinite article
ida ("one"), used after nouns:

labarik ida – a child

There is no definite article, but the demonstratives
ida-ne'e ("this one") and ida-ne'ebá ("that one") may be used to
express definiteness:

labarik ida-ne'e – this child, the child

labarik ida-ne'ebá – that child, the child

In the plural, sira-ne'e ("these") or sira-ne'ebá ("those") are
used:

labarik sira-ne'e – these children, the children

labarik sira-ne'ebá – those children, the children

Possessive/genitive[edit]

The particle nia forms the inalienable possessive, and can be used in
a similar way to 's in English, e.g.:

João nia uma – João's house

Cristina nia livru – Cristina's book

When the possessor is postposed, representing alienable possession,
nia becomes nian:

povu Timór Lorosa'e nian – the people of East Timor

Inclusive and exclusive "we"[edit]

Like other Austronesian languages, Tetum has two forms of "we", ami
(equivalent to Malay kami) which is exclusive, e.g. "I and they", and
ita (equivalent to Malay kita), which is inclusive, e.g. "you, I, and
they".

ami-nia karreta – our [family's] car

ita-nia rain – our country

Nominalization[edit]

Nouns derived from verbs or adjectives are usually formed with affixes, for example the suffix
-na'in, similar to "-er" in English.

hakerek "write" → hakerek-na'in "writer"

The suffix -na'in can also be used with nouns, in the sense of
"owner".

uma "house" → uma-na'in "householder"

In more traditional forms of Tetum, the circumfix
ma(k)- -k is used instead of -na'in. For example, the nouns
"sinner" or "wrongdoer" can be derived from the word sala as either
maksalak, or sala-na'in. Only the prefix
ma(k)- is used when the root word ends with a consonant; for example, the
noun "cook" or "chef" can be derived from the word te'in as
makte'in as well as te'in-na'in.

The suffix -teen (from the word for "dirt" or "excrement") can be used
with adjectives to form derogatory terms:

bosok "false" → bosok-teen "liar"

Adjectives[edit]

Derivation from
nouns[edit]

To turn a noun into a nominalised adjective, the word oan (person,
child, associated object) is added to it.

malae "foreigner" → malae-oan "foreign"

Thus, "Timorese person" is Timor-oan, as opposed to the country of
Timor, rai-Timor.

To form adjectives and actor nouns from verbs, the suffix -dór
(derived from Portuguese) can be added:

hateten "tell" → hatetendór "talkative"

Gender[edit]

Tetum does not have separate masculine and feminine gender, hence nia
(similar to ia/dia/nya in Malay) can mean either "he",
"she" or "it".

Different forms for the genders only occur in Portuguese-derived adjectives,
hence obrigadu ("thank you") is used by men, and obrigada by
women. The masculine and feminine forms of other adjectives derived from
Portuguese are sometimes used with Portuguese loanwords, particularly by
Portuguese-educated speakers of Tetum.

governu demokrátiku – democratic government (from governo
democrático, masculine)

nasaun demokrátika – democratic nation (from nação
democrática, feminine)

In some instances, the different gender forms have distinct translations into
English:

bonitu – handsome

bonita – pretty

In indigenous Tetum words, the suffixes -mane ("male") and
-feto ("female") are sometimes used to differentiate between the genders:

oan-mane "son" → oan-feto "daughter"

Comparatives
and superlatives[edit]

Superlatives can be formed from adjectives by reduplication:

barak "much", "many" → babarak "very much", "many"

boot "big", "great" → boboot "huge", "enormous"

di'ak "good" → didi'ak "very good"

ikus "last" → ikuikus "the very last", "final"

moos "clean", "clear" → momoos "spotless",
"immaculate"

When making comparisons, the word liu ("more") is used after the
adjective, optionally followed by duké ("than" from Portuguese do
que):

Maria tuan liu (duké) Ana — Maria is older than Ana.

To describe something as the most or least, the word hotu ("all") is
added:

Maria tuan liu hotu — Maria is the oldest.

Adverbs[edit]

Adverbs can be formed from adjectives or nouns by reduplication:

di'ak "good" → didi'ak "well"

foun "new", "recent" → foufoun "newly", "recently"

kalan "night" → kalakalan "nightly"

lais "quick" → lailais "quickly"

loron "day" → loroloron "daily"

Prepositions
and circumpositions[edit]

The most commonly used prepositions
in Tetum are the verbs iha ("have", "possess", "specific locative") and
baa/ba ("go", "to", "for"). Most prepostional concepts of English
are expressed by nominal phrases formed by using iha, the object and the
position (expressed by a noun),optionally with the possessive nia.

iha uma (nia) laran — inside the house

iha foho (nia) tutun — on top of the mountain

iha meza leten — on the table

iha kadeira okos — under the chair

iha rai li'ur — outside the country

iha ema (nia) leet — between the people

Verbs[edit]

Copula and
negation[edit]

There is no verb
"to be" as such, but the word la'ós, which translates as "not to be",
is used for negation:

Timor-oan sira la'ós Indonézia-oan. — The Timorese are not
Indonesians.

The word maka, which roughly translates as "who is" or "what is", can
be used with an adjective for emphasis:

João maka gosta serveja. — It's John who likes beer.

Interrogation[edit]

The interrogative
is formed by using the words ka ("or") or ka lae ("or not").

O bulak ka? — Are you crazy?

O gosta ha'u ka lae? — Do you like me?

Derivation from nouns and
adjectives[edit]

Transitive
verbs are formed by adding the prefix ha- or hak- to a noun or
adjective:

been "liquid" → habeen "to liquify", "to melt"

bulak "mad" → habulak "to drive mad"

klibur "union" → haklibur "to unite"

mahon "shade" → hamahon "to shade", "to cover"

manas "hot" → hamanas "to heat up"

Intransitive
verbs are formed by adding the prefix na- or nak- to a noun or
adjective:

nabeen — (to be) liquified, melted

nabulak — (to be) driven mad

naklibur — (to be) united

namahon — (to be) shaded, covered

namanas — (to become) heated up

Conjugations and inflections (in
Tetun-Terik)[edit]

In Tetun-Terik, verbs inflect when they begin with a vowel or
consonant h. In this case mutation
of the first consonant occurs. For example, the verb haree (to see) in
Tetun-Terik would be conjugated
as follows:

ha'u karee — I see

ó maree — you (sing.) see

nia naree — he/she/it sees

ami haree — we see

imi haree — you (pl.) see

sira raree — they see

Tenses[edit]

Past[edit]

Whenever possible, the past tense is simply inferred from the context, for
example:

Horisehik ha'u han etu – Yesterday I ate rice.

However, it can be expressed by placing the adverb ona ("already") at
the end of a sentence.

Ha'u han etu ona – I've (already) eaten rice.

When ona is used with la ("not") this means "no more" or "no
longer", rather than "have not":

Ha'u la han etu ona – I don't eat rice anymore.

In order to convey that an action has not occurred, the word seidauk
("not yet") is used:

Ha'u seidauk han etu – I haven't eaten rice (yet).

When relating an action that occurred in the past, the word tiha
("finally" or "well and truly") is used with the verb.

Ha'u han tiha etu – I ate rice.

Future[edit]

The future tense is formed by
placing the word sei ("will") before a verb:

Ha'u sei fó hahán ba sira – I will give them
food.

The negative is formed by adding la ("not") between sei and the
verb:

Ha'u sei la fó hahán ba sira – I will not give them
food.

Aspects[edit]

Perfect[edit]

The perfect aspect
can be formed by using tiha ona.

Ha'u han etu tiha ona – I have eaten rice / I ate rice.

When negated, tiha ona indicates that an action ceased to occur:

Ha'u la han etu tiha ona – I didn't eat rice anymore.

In order to convey that a past action had not or never occurred, the word
ladauk ("not yet" or "never") is used:

Ha'u ladauk han etu – I didn't eat rice / I hadn't eaten
rice.

Progressive[edit]

The progressive
aspect can be obtained by placing the word hela ("stay") after a
verb:

Sira serbisu hela. – They're (still) working.

Imperative[edit]

The imperative
mood is formed using the word ba ("go") at the end of a sentence,
hence:

Lee surat ba! – Read the letter!

The word lai ("just" or "a bit") may also be used when making a
request rather than a command:

Lee surat lai – Just read the letter.

When forbidding an action labele ("cannot") or keta ("do not")
are used:

Labele fuma iha ne'e! – Don't smoke here!

Keta oho sira! – Don't kill them!

Orthography and
phonology[edit]

See also: Tetum alphabet

The influence of Portuguese and to a lesser extent Malay/Indonesian on the
phonology of Tetun has been extensive.

Tetum Vowels

Front

Central

Back

Close

i

u

Mid

e

o

Open

ä

In the tetun language, /a/, /i/ and /u/ tend to have relatively fixed sounds. However /e/ and /o/ vary according to the environment they are placed in, for
instance the sound is slightly higher if the proceeding syllable is /u/ or /i/.[18]

Tetum consonants

Labial

Alveolar

Palatal

Velar

Glottal

Nasal

m

n

(ɲ ~ i̯n)

(ŋ)

Stop

(p)

b

t

d

k

(ɡ)

ʔ

Fricative

f

(v)

s

(z)

(ʃ)

(ʒ)

h

Approximant

j

w

Lateral

l

(ʎ ~ i̯l)

Flap

ɾ

Trill

(r)

All consonants appearing in parenthesis are used only in loanwords.

Stops: All stops in Tetum are un-aspirated, meaning an expulsion of breath is
absent. In contrast, English stops namely ‘p’ ‘t’ and ‘k’ are generally
aspirated.

Fricatives: /v/ is an unstable voiced labio-dental fricative and tends to
alternate with or is replaced by /b/; e.g. [aˈvoː] – [aˈboː] meaning grandparent.[16]

As Tetum did not have any official recognition or support under either
Portuguese or Indonesian rule, it is only recently that a standardised
orthography has been established by the National
Institute of Linguistics (INL). The standard orthography devised by the
institute was declared official by Government Decree 1/2004 of 14 April
2004.[19]
However, there are still widespread variations in spelling, one example being
the word bainhira or "when", which has also been written as
bain-hira, wainhira, waihira, uaihira. The use of
"w" or "u" is a reflection of the pronunciation in some rural dialects of
Tetun-Terik.

The current orthography originates from the spelling reforms undertaken by Fretilin in
1974, when it launched literacy campaigns across East Timor, and also from the
system used by the Catholic Church when it adopted Tetum as its liturgical
language during the Indonesian occupation. These involved the transcription
of many Portuguese words that were formerly written in their original spelling,
for example, educação → edukasaun "education", and
colonialismo → kolonializmu "colonialism".

Reforms suggested by the International Committee for the Development of East
Timorese Languages (IACDETL) in 1996 included the replacement of the digraphs "nh"
and "lh"
(borrowed from Portuguese, where they stand for the phonemes /ɲ/ and /ʎ/) by "n̄" and "l̄" , respectively (as in certain Basque orthographies),
to avoid confusion with the consonant
clusters /nh/ and /lh/, which also occur in Tetum. Thus, senhor "sir"
became sen̄ór, and trabalhador "worker" became trabal̄adór.
Later, as adopted by IACDETL and approved by the INL in 2002, "n̄" and "l̄" were
replaced by "ñ" and
"ll" (as in Spanish). Thus,
sen̄ór "sir" became señór, and trabal̄adór "worker" became
traballadór. Some linguists favoured using "ny"
(as in Catalan
and Filipino)
and "ly"
for these sounds, but the latter spellings were rejected for being similar to
the Indonesian system, and most speakers actually pronounce ñ and
ll as [i̯n] and [i̯l], respectively, with a semivowel
[i̯]
which forms a diphthong
with the preceding vowel (but reduced to [n], [l] after /i/), not as the palatal
consonants of Portuguese and Spanish. Thus, señór, traballadór
are pronounced [sei̯ˈnoɾ], [tɾabai̯laˈdoɾ], and liña, kartilla are
pronounced [ˈlina], [kaɾˈtila]. As a result, some writers use "in" and "il"
instead, for example Juinu and Juilu for June and July
(Junho and Julho in Portuguese).

As well as variations in the transliteration of Portuguese loanwords, there
are also variations in the spelling of indigenous words. These include the use
of double vowels and the apostrophe
for the glottal
stop, for example boot → bot "large" and ki'ik →
kiik "small".

The sound [z], which is not indigenous to Tetum but appears in many
loanwords from Portuguese and Malay, often changed to [s] in old Tetum and to [ʒ] (written "j") in the speech of young speakers: for
example, meja "table" from Portuguese mesa, and kamija
"shirt" from Portuguese camisa. In the sociolect of Tetum that is still
used by the generation educated during the Indonesian occupation, [z] and [ʒ] may occur in free
variation. For instance, the Portuguese-derived word ezemplu
"example" is pronounced [eˈʒemplu] by some speakers, and conversely Janeiru
"January" is pronounced [zanˈeiru]. The sound [v], also not native to the language, often shifted to [b], as in serbisu "work" from Portuguese
serviço (also note that a modern INL convention promotes the use of
serbisu for "work" and servisu for "service").

See also[edit]

Asia
portal

Indonesia
portal

Languages
portal

Tetum edition of Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia

Languages
of East Timor

The
Lord's Prayer in Tetum at Wikisource

References[edit]

^ a
b
Tetum (Portuguese), Tetun (Lian Tetun) at Ethnologue (18th ed.,
2015)

^

"Table 14: Second language/dialect by sex for
the population over four years of age". Timor-Leste Population and Housing Census 2015.
Timor-Leste Ministry of Finance.

^
Bauer,
Laurie (2007). The Linguistics Student's Handbook. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.

^
"Tetun". Retrieved 13 June
2018.

^
"A Traveller's Dictionary in Tetun-English and
English-Tetun". www.gnu.org.
Retrieved 13 June 2018.

^ a
b
c
Manhitu,
Yohanes (2016). Tetum, A Language For Everyone: Tetun, Lian Ida Ba Ema
Hotu-Hotu. New York: Mondial. p. vii-viii. ISBN 9781595693211. Retrieved 1 July
2019.

^
Grimes,
Charles E.; Tom Therik; Grimes, Barbara Dix; Max Jacob (1997). A Guide to the People and Languages of Nusa Tenggara
(PDF). Kupang: Artha Wacana Press.
p. 52.

^
Hull 2004

^
Catharina Williams-van Klinken, 2011 (2nd ed.),
Tetun Language Course, Peace Corps East Timor, 2nd ed. 2011, footnote,
p.58

^
Catharina Williams-van Klinken states
otherwise,[9]

^
Chen,
Yen-Ling (2015), "Tetun Dili And Creoles: Another Look" (PDF),
Working Papers in Linguistics, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa,
46 (7)

^
Hull,
Geoffrey (24 August 2004). "The Languages of East Timor: Some Basic Facts". Archived
from the original on 2008-01-19.

^
"Tetum and Other Languages of East Timor", from Dr.
Geoffrey Hull's Preface to Mai Kolia Tetun: A Course in Tetum-Praca (The
Lingua Franca of East Timor)

^
Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002)
s.v. "Oost-Timor. §1.5 Onafhankelijkheid". Microsoft Corporation/Het
Spectrum.

^
"Table 13:
Population distribution by mother tongue, Urban Rural and District". Volume 2: Population Distribution by Administrative
Areas (PDF). Population and Housing
Census of Timor-Leste, 2010. Timor-Leste Ministry of Finance.
p. 205.

^ a
b
c
Williams-van
Klinken, Catharina; Hajek, John; Nordlinger, Rachel (2002). Tetun
Dili: A grammar of an East Timorese language (PDF). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian
National University. doi:10.15144/pl-528. hdl:1885/146149. ISBN 0858835096.

^
Williams-van
Klinken, Catharina; Hajek, John (2006). "Patterns of address in Dili Tetum, East Timor".
Australian Review of Applied Linguistics. 29 (2): 21.1–21.18. doi:10.2104/aral0621.

^
Hull, Geoffrey. (1999). Tetum, Language Manual
for East Timor. Academy of East Timor Studies, Faculty of Education &
Languages, University of Western Sydney Macathur.

^
"Governo Decreto no. 1/2004 de 14 de Abril "O Padrão
Ortográfico da Língua Tétum"" (PDF).

National Institute of Linguistics, National University of East
Timor (Archived) includes several bilingual Tetum dictionaries, and
articles about Tetum

Hull, Geoffrey, Standard Tetum-English Dictionary 2nd Ed, Allen
& Unwin Publishers ISBN 978-1-86508-599-9

Official Web Gateway to the Government of Timor-Leste –
Religion & Language

The standard orthography of the Tetum language (PDF)

Matadalan Ortografiku ba Lia-Tetun - Tetum Spelling
Guide

Damien LEIRIS - Personal approach of the Tetum language
(PDF)

Colonization, Decolonization and Integration: Language Policies
in East Timor, Indonesia, by Nancy Melissa Lutz

Current Language Issues in East Timor (Dr. Geoffrey
Hull)

Van Klinken, Catharina
(1999). A grammar of the Fehan dialect of Tetun, an Austronesian
language of West Timor (PDF).
Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University. doi:10.15144/PL-C155.
ISBN 0858835142.

Hull, Geoffrey (1998). "The Languages of Timor 1772-1997: A Literature Review".
Estudos de Linguas e Culturas de Timor Leste (Studies in Languages and
Cultures of East Timor). 1: 1–38.

Ross, Melody A. (2017). Attitudes toward Tetun Dili, A Language of East
Timor (PDF) (phd thesis). University
of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. hdl:10125/62504.

External links[edit]

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of:
Tetum

Peace Corps East Timor Tetun Language Manual (2011, 2nd edition; 2015, 3rd edition)

Intensive
Tetun language courses at Dili Institute of Technology

Pictures
from a Portuguese language course, using Tetum, published in the East
Timorese newspaper Lia
Foun in Díli (from Wikimedia
Commons)

Tetun website with sound files

Teach yourself Tetum... an interview with some information
on the history of Tetum

Wordfinder
(Tetun/English minidictionary) and other publications available from
Dili

Damien LEIRIS - Personal approach of the Tetum language
(PDF)

Tetun dictionary

Tetum illustrated dictionary

Dili Institute of Technology Institute of Technology
website

A Traveller's Dictionary in Tetun-English and English-Tetun
includes some information on grammar, based on the Tetun-Terik
dialect

Sebastião Aparício da Silva Project for the Protection and
Promotion of East Timorese Languages

Suara
Timor Lorosae Daily newspaper in Tetum and Indonesian

Jornal Nacional Semanário Tetum page

Tetum dictionaries

Tetun
1, Tetun 2 Tetun writing courses for East Timorese university students, by
Catharina Williams-van Klinken, Dili Institute of Technology

Talk Tetum in Timor VisitEastTimor.com Travel Guide help
you to talk in East Timor

Robert Blust's field notes on
Tetun are archived with Kaipuleohone

v

t

e

Central
Malayo-Polynesian languages

Sumba–Flores

Bima

Sumba-Manggarai

Hawu

Dhao

Kambera

Mamboru

Anakalangu

Wanukaka

Pondok

Baliledo

Wejewa

Lamboya

Kodi

Gaura

Komodo

Manggarai

Riung

Rembong

Rajong

Kepo'

Wae
Rana

Palu'e

Ende

Lio

Nage

Ke'o

Ngad'a

Rongga

So'a

Flores-Lembata

Kedang

Sika-Lamaholot

Sika

Lamatuka

Lewo
Eleng

Levuka

South
Lembata

Lamaholot

Alorese

Lamalera

Lewotobi

Adonara

Ile
Ape

Mingar

Selaru

Selaru

Seluwasan

Kei-Tanimbar

Kei

Fordata

Yamdena

Onin

Sekar

Uruangnirin

Aru

Ujir

Kola

Kompane

Lola

Dobel

Koba

Lorang

Manombai

West
Tarangan

East
Tarangan

Karey

Barakai

Batuley

Mariri

Timoric

Kemak

Tokodede

Mambai

Idalaka

Dawan

Amarasi

Helong

Bilba

Dengka

Lole

Ringgou

Dela-Oenale

Termanu

Tii

Tetum

Bekais

Wetar

Galoli

Naueti

Kairui

Waimoa

Midiki

Makuva

Kisar

Romang

Leti

Luang

East
Damar

Teun

Nila

Serua

Babar

West
Damar

Dawera-Daweloor

North
Babar

Dai

Masela

Serili

Southeast
Babar

Emplawas

Imroing

Tela'a

Central
Maluku ?

Teor-Kur

West Central Maluku

Ambelau

Buru

Lisela

Hukumina
†

Palumata
†

Moksela
†

Sula

Mangole

Taliabo

East Central Maluku

Banda

Bati

Geser

Watubela

Bobot

Masiwang

Hoti
†

Benggoi

Salas

Liana

Kayeli
†

Nuaulu

Huaulu

Manusela

Wemale

Yalahatan

Asilulu

Luhu

Manipa

Wakasihu

Boano
(Moluccas)

Sepa-Teluti

Paulohi

Kaibobo

Hitu

Tulehu

Laha

Seit-Kaitetu

Kamarian
†

Haruku

Amahai

Nusa
Laut

Saparua

Latu

unclassified

Kowiai

? indicates classification dispute

† indicates extinct
status

v

t

e

Austronesian
languages

Formosan

Rukaic

Rukai

Tsouic

Tsou

Kanakanavu

Saaroa

Northern
Formosan

Atayalic

Atayal

Seediq

Northwest
Formosan

Saisiyat

Pazeh
†

Kulon
†

Thao

Babuza

Favorlang
†

Papora-Hoanya
†

East
Formosan

Kavalanic

Basay
†

Kavalan

Luilang
†

Ami

Amis

Sakizaya

Siraiyac

Siraya
†

Taivoan
†

Southern

Puyuma

Paiwan

Bunun

Malayo-Polynesian

Western
branches of Malayo-Polynesian

Philippine

Batanic
(Bashiic)

Itbayat

Ivatan

Yami

Northern
Luzon

Ilokano

Pangasinan

Ibanag

Arta

Isnag

Atta

Itawis

Yogad

Cagayan
Aeta

Gaddang

Ga'dang

Northern
Alta

Southern
Alta

Isinai

Itneg

Kalinga

Ifugao

Tuwali ?

Balangao

Bontok-Finallig

Kankanaey

Ilongot

Ibaloi

Iwaak

Kalanguya

Karao

Dicamay
Agta †

Central
Luzon

Kapampangan

Abellen

Ambala

Bolinao

Botolan

Mag-antsi

Mag-indi

Mariveleño

Sambali

Remontado
Agta (Sinauna)

Northern
Mindoro

Alangan

Iraya

Tadyawan

Greater
Central
Philippine

Southern
Mindoro

Buhid

Hanuno'o

Tawbuid

Central
Philippine

Tagalog

Bisayan

Cebuano

Hiligaynon

Waray

Tausug

Kinaray-a

Aklanon

Capiznon

Asi

Bantayanon

Baybayanon

Boholano

Butuanon

Caluyanon

Cuyunon

Kinabalian

Onhan

Porohanon

Ratagnon

Romblomanon

Surigaonon

Masbatenyo

Southern
Sorsogon (Gubat)

Central
Sorsogon (Masbate)

Bikol

Central
Bikol

Albay
Bikol

Isarog
Agta

Mount
Iraya Agta

Mount
Iriga Agta

Pandan
Bikol

Rinconada

Unclassified

Sulod

Mansakan

Davawenyo

Kalagan

Kamayo

Mamanwa

Mandaya

Mansaka

Palawan

Aborlan
Tagbanwa

Palawan
Batak

Palawano

Mindanao

Maguindanao

Maranao

Agusan

Ata
Manobo

Binukid

Cotabato
Manobo

Higaonon

Ilianen

Iranun

Kagayanen

Kinamigin

Matigsalug

Obo

Sarangani

Subanen

Tagabawa

Western
Bukidnon

Gorontalo-
Mongondow

Bolango

Buol

Bintauna

Gorontalo

Kaidipang

Lolak

Suwawa

Mongondow

Ponosakan

Kalamian

Agutaynen

Calamian
Tagbanwa

Bilic

B'laan

Giangan

T'boli

Tiruray

Sangiric

Sangirese

Talaud

Bantik

Ratahan

Minahasan

Tonsawang

Tontemboan

Tombulu

Tondano

Tonsea

Manide-Inagta

Inagta
Alabat

Manide

Ati

Ati

Unclassified

Umiray
Dumaget

Other
western branches

North Bornean

Sabahan

Ida'an

Bonggi

Brunei
Bisaya

Tatana
(Sabah Bisaya)

Lotud

Dumpas

Dusun

Kuijau

Eastern
Kadazan

Gana'

Kota
Marudu Talantang

Kinamaragang
(Momogun)

Klias
River Kadazan

Coastal
Kadazan

Yakan

Tombonuwo

Kinabatangan

Sungai

Keningau
Murut

Okolod

Tagol

Paluan

Selungai
Murut

Timugon

Bookan

Abai

Papar

Kalabakan

Sembakung

Serudung

Nonukan
Tidong

Unclassified

Molbog

North
Sarawakan

Kenyah
(Bakung)

Sebob

Tutoh

Uma'
Lasan

Wahau
Kenyah

Penan ?

Kelabit

Lengilu

Lundayeh

Sa'ban

Tring

Berawan

Belait

Kiput

Narom

Tutong

Bintulu

Melanau-Kajang

Kajaman

Lahanan

Sekapan

Daro-Matu

Kanowit-Tanjong

Melanau

Bukitan

Punan
Batu

Sian

Ukit

Basap

Burusu

Bah-Biau
Punan

Sajau

Punan
Merap

Bukat

Seru
†

Lelak
†

Kayan-Murik

Kayan

Bahau

Modang

Segai

Hovongan

Aoheng

Aput

Punan

Krio
Dayak

Murik

Land
Dayak

Bekati'

Sara

Lara'

Bukar
Sadong

Rejang

Biatah

Tringgus

Jagoi

Jangkang

Kembayan

Semandang

Ribun

Benyadu'

Sanggau

Barito

Malagasy

Bushi

Deyah

Malang

Witu

Ma'anyan

Paku

Lawangan

Kohin

Dihoi

Siang

Bakumpai

Ngaju

Ampanang

Tunjung

Sama-Bajaw

Abaknon

Bajaw

Mapun

Pangutaran
Sama

Sama

West
Coast Bajau

Yakan

Moklenic

Moken

Moklen

Malayo-Chamic

Aceh–Chamic

Acehnese

Cham
dialects

Chru

Haroi

Jarai

Rade

Roglai

Tsat
(Utsat)

Malayic

Bamayo

Banjar

Brunei/Kedayan
Malay

Berau
Malay

Bangka
Malay

Bengkulu

Col

Duano'

Haji

Iban

Jambi
Malay

Jakun

Kedah
Malay

Kutai
Malay

Kaur

Kerinci

Kelantan-Pattani
Malay (Yawi)

Kendayan

Keninjal

Kubu

Orang
Laut

Lubu

Johore-Riau
Malay (Malaysian
& Indonesian)

Minangkabau

Musi

Mualang

Negeri
Sembilan Malay

Orang
Kanaq

Orang
Seletar

Pahang
Malay

Pekal

Perak
Malay

Pontianak
Malay

Remun

Sarawak
Malay

Seberuang

Sebuyau

Temuan

Terengganu
Malay

Urak
Lawoi'

Northwest
Sumatra–
Barrier Islands

Enggano

Gayo

Mentawai

Nias

Sikule

Simeulue

Batak

Alas

Angkola

Dairi

Karo

Simalungun

Toba

Mandailing

Lampungic

Lampung Nyo

Lampung Api

Komering

Sundanese

Baduy

Sundanese

Javanese

Banyumasan

Kawi
(Old
Javanese)

Osing

Tenggerese

Madurese

Kangean

Madurese

Bali–Sasak–Sumbawa

Balinese

Sasak

Sumbawa

Celebic

Bungku–Tolaki

Bahonsuai

Bungku

Kodeoha

Kulisusu

Moronene

Mori
Bawah

Mori
Atas

Padoe

Rahambuu

Tolaki

Tomadino

Waru

Wawonii

Kaili–Pamona

Bada

Behoa

Kaili

Mbelala

Moma

Napu

Pamona

Rampi

Sarudu

Sedoa

Topoiyo

Uma

Muna–Buton

Bonerate

Busoa

Cia-Cia

Kaimbulawa

Kumbewaha

Lasalimu

Liabuku

Muna

Pancana

Tukang
Besi

Saluan–Banggai

Andio

Balantak

Banggai

Batui

Bobongko

Saluan

Tomini–Tolitoli

Balaesang

Boano

Dampelas

Dondo

Lauje

Pendau

Taje

Tajio

Tomini

Totoli

Wotu–Wolio

Kalao

Kamaru

Laiyolo

Wolio

Wotu

South
Sulawesi

Aralle-Tabulahan

Bambam

Bentong

Budong-Budong

Buginese

Campalagian

Coastal
Konjo

Dakka

Duri

Embaloh

Enrekang

Highland
Konjo

Kalumpang

Lawa

Lemolang

Maiwa
(Sulawesi)

Makassarese

Malimpung

Mamasa

Mamuju

Mandar

Panasuan

Pannei

Selayar

Seko
Padang

Seko
Tengah

Tae'

Talondo'

Taman

Toraja-Sa'dan

Ulumanda'

Branch-level isolates

Chamorro

Palauan

Central–Eastern
Malayo-Polynesian

Central
Malayo-Polynesian

Sumba–Flores

Bima

Sumba-Manggarai

Sumba–Hawu

Hawu

Dhao

Kambera

Mamboru

Anakalangu

Wanukaka

Pondok

Baliledo

Wejewa

Lamboya

Kodi

Gaura

Western Flores

Komodo

Manggarai

Riung

Rembong

Rajong

Kepo'

Wae
Rana

Palu'e

Ende

Lio

Nage

Ke'o

Ngad'a

Rongga

So'a

Flores-Lembata

Kedang

Sika-Lamaholot

Sika

Lamaholotic

Lamatuka

Lewo
Eleng

Levuka

South
Lembata

Lamaholot

Alorese

Lamalera

Lewotobi

Adonara

Ile
Ape

Mingar

Selaru

Selaru

Seluwasan

Kei-Tanimbar

Kei

Fordata

Yamdena

Onin

Sekar

Uruangnirin

Aru

Barakai

Batuley

Dobel

Karey

Koba

Kola

Lola

Lorang

Manombai

Mariri

Tarangan

Ujir

Timor-Babar

Timoric ?

Kemak

Tukudede

Mambai

Idalaka

Dawan

Amarasi

Helong

Bilba

Dengka

Lole

Ringgou

Dela-Oenale

Termanu

Tii

Tetum

Bekais

Wetar

Galoli

Naueti

Kairui

Waimoa

Midiki

Makuva

Kisar

Romang

Leti

Luang

East
Damar

Teun

Nila

Serua

Babar

West
Damar

Dawera-Daweloor

North
Babar

Dai

Masela

Serili

Southeast
Babar

Emplawas

Imroing

Tela'a

Kowiai

Kowiai

Central
Maluku ?

Teor-Kur

West Central Maluku

Ambelau

Buru

Lisela

Hukumina
†

Moksela
†

Sula

Mangole

Taliabo

East Central Maluku

Banda

Bati

Geser

Watubela

Bobot

Masiwang

Hoti
†

Benggoi

Salas

Liana

Nunusaku

Kayeli
†

Nuaulu

Huaulu

Manusela

Wemale

Yalahatan

Piru
Bay ?

Asilulu

Luhu

Manipa

Wakasihu

Boano
(Moluccas)

Sepa-Teluti

Paulohi

Kaibobo

Hitu

Tulehu

Laha

Seit-Kaitetu

Kamarian
†

Haruku

Amahai

Nusa
Laut

Saparua

Latu

Eastern
Malayo-Polynesian

South
Halmahera–West New Guinea

Oceanic
languages

Bold indicates languages with more than 1 million
speakers

? indicates classification dispute

† indicates extinct
status

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t

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Languages
of East Timor

Official
languages

Portuguese

Tetum

National
languages

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Baikeno

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Working
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Indonesian

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Western
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Kendayan

Keninjal

Kubu

Lubu

Loncong

Madurese

Malay

Bangka

Banjar

Bengkulu

Berau

Col/Lembak

Jambi

Kaur

Jaring
Halus

Kerinci

Kutai

Larantuka

Minangkabau

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Pekal

Pontianak

Mualang

Sasak

Seberuang

Sumbawan

Sundanese

Baduy

Bantenese

Javanese

Javanese

Banyumasan

Osing

Tenggerese

Celebic

Andio

Bada

Bahonsuai

Balaesang

Balantak

Banggai

Batui

Behoa

Boano

Bobongko

Bonerate

Bungku

Busoa

Cia-Cia

Dampelas

Dondo

Kalao

Kaili

Kaimbulawa

Kamaru

Kodeoha

Kulisusu

Kumbewaha

Lasalimu

Laiyolo

Lauje

Liabuku

Mbelala

Moronene

Mori
Bawah

Mori
Atas

Moma

Muna

Napu

Padoe

Pancana

Pendau

Rahambuu

Rampi

Saluan

Sarudu

Sedoa

Pamona

Taje

Tajio

Tukang
Besi

Tolaki

Tomadino

Topoiyo

Tomini

Totoli

Uma

Waru

Wawonii

Wolio

Wotu

Lampungic

Komering

Lampung

Northwest
Sumatra–
Barrier Islands

Batak

Alas

Batak
Angkola

Batak
Dairi

Batak
Karo

Batak
Mandailing

Batak
Simalungun

Batak
Toba

Enggano

Gayo

Mentawai

Nias

Simeulue

Sikule

South
Sulawesi

Aralle-Tabulahan

Bambam

Bentong

Budong-Budong

Buginese

Campalagian

Coastal
Konjo

Dakka

Duri

Embaloh

Enrekang

Highland
Konjo

Kalumpang

Lemolang

Maiwa

Makassarese

Malimpung

Mamasa

Mamuju

Mandar

Panasuan

Pannei

Selayar

Seko
Padang

Seko
Tengah

Tae’

Talondo’

Taman

Toraja-Sa’dan

Ulumanda’

Barito

Ampanang

Bajaw

Bakumpai

Deyah

Kohin

Lawangan

Ma'anyan

Malang

Ngaju

Ot
Danum

Ot
Siang

Tunjung

Witu

Pakau

Kayan–Murik

Aoheng

Aput

Bahau

Hovongan

Kayan

Krio

Modang

Punan
Merah

Segai

Land
Dayak

Bakati’

Biatah

Bukar
Sadong

Jangkang

Kembayan

Laraʼ

Nyadu’

Rejangese

Ribun

Sanggau

Sara

Semandang

Beginci

Gerai

Tringgus

North
Bornean

Bah-Biau

Basap

Bukat

Bukitan

Kelabit

Kenyah

Mainstream

Lengilu

Lun
Bawang

Murut

Okolod

Selungai

Sembakung

Tagol

Punan
Merap

Punan
Tubu

Sa'ban

Sajau

Tidung

Burusu

Kalabakan

Nonukan

Philippine
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Bintauna

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Gorontaloan

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Lolak

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Suwawa

Minahasan

Tombulu

Tondano

Tonsawang

Tonsea

Tontemboan

Sangiric

Bantik

Ratahan

Sangirese

Talaud

Central-Eastern
languages

Aru

Barakai

Batuley

Dobel

Karey

Koba

Kola-Kompane

Lola

Lorang

Manombai

Mariri

Tarangan

Ujir

Central
Maluku

Alune

Amahai

Ambelau

Asilulu

Banda

Bati

Benggoi

Boano

Bobot

Buru

Geser

Haruku

Hitu

Hoti

Huaulu

Hulung

Kaibobo

Kamarian

Laha

Larike-Wakasihu

Latu

Liana-Seti

Lisabata-Nuniali

Lisela

Loun

Luhu

Mangole

Manipa

Manusela

Masiwang

Naka'ela

Nuaulu

Nusa
Laut

Paulohi

Salas

Saleman

Saparua

Seit-Kaitetu

Sepa-Teluti

Sula

Taliabo

Teor-Kur

Tulehu

Watubela

Wemale

Yalahatan

Flores–Lembata

Alorese

Kedang

Lamaholot

Adonara

Ile
Ape

Lamalera

Lamatuka

Levuka

Lewo
Eleng

Lewotobi

South
Lembata

West
Lembata

Sika

Halmahera-
Cenderawasih

Ambai

Ansus

Arguni

Bedoanas

Biak

Busami

Dusner

Erokwanas

Irarutu

Iresim

Kuri

Kurudu

Munggui

Marau

Meoswar

Mor

Pom

Papuma

Roon

Serui-Laut

Tandia

Wabo

Waropen

Wandamen

Woi

Yaur

Yeretuar

Kei-Tanimbar

Fordata

Kei

Onin

Sekar

Uruangnirin

Yamdena

Selaru

Selaru

Seluwasan

Sumba–Flores

Anakalangu

Baliledo

Bima

Dhao

Ende

Gaura

Hawu

Kambera

Kéo

Kodi

Komodo

Lamboya

Lio

Mamboru

Manggarai

Nage

Ngadha

Palu'e

Pondok

Rajong

Rembong

Riung

Rongga

So'a

Kepo'

Wae
Rana

Wanukaka

Wejewa

Timor–Babar

Tetum

Uab
Meto

Amarasi

Baikeno

Bekais

Bilba

Dai

Dawera-Daweloor

Dela-Oenale

Dengka

East
Damar

Emplawas

Helong

Imroing

Kisar

Leti

Lole

Luang

Masela

Nila

North
Babar

Ringgou

Romang

Serili

Serua

Southeast
Babar

Tela'a

Termanu

Te'un

Tii

West
Damar

Wetar

Western
Oceanic

Anus

Bonggo

Kayupulau

Liki

Masimasi

Ormu

Podena

Kaptiau

Sobei

Tarpia

Tobati

Wakde

Yamna

Other

Kowiai

Papuan
languages

North
Halmahera

Galela

Gamkonora

Loloda

Modole

Pagu

Sahu

Tabaru

Ternate

Tidore

Tobelo

Waioli

West
Makian

Timor–Alor–Pantar

Abui

Adang

Blagar

Bunak

Kaera

Kafoa

Kamang

Klon

Kui

Kula

Nedebang

Oirata

Retta

Sawila

Teiwa

Wersing

Western
Pantar

Abun

Aghu

Airoran

Asmat

Auye

Bagusa

Baham

Baropasi

Bauzi

Bayono-Awbono

Berik

Betaf

Bimin

Bonerif

Burate

Burmeso

Burumakok

Buruwai

Citak

Dabe

Dao

Demisa

Demta

Dineor

Ekari

Faiwol

Grand
Valley Dani

Hattam

Hupla

Iha

Isirawa

Itik

Iwur

Jofotek-Bromnya

Kalabra

Kamberau

Kamoro

Kanum

Karas

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Kehu

Keijar

Kofei

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Kombai–Wanggom

Komyandaret

Koneraw

Kopka

Kopkaka

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Kwerba
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Kwerba

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Kwinsu

Maklew

Mander

Mandobo

Mawes

Maybrat

Meax

Meninggo

Mian

Moi

Mombum

Momina

Momuna

Moni

Moraid

Mpur

Muyu

Nafri

Nakai

Nduga

Ngalum

Nggem

Ninggerum

Nisa-Anasi

Oksapmin

Orya

Pisa

Samarokena

Saponi

Sauri

Sause

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Sawi

Sawila

Seget

Sempan

Sentani

Setaman

Shiaxa

Silimo

Skou

Sougb

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Tabla

Tangko

Tause

Tefaro

Tehit

Telefol

Tifal

Trimuris

Tsaukambo

Tunggare

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Vitou

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Western
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Woria

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Manado
Malay

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Malay

North
Moluccan Malay

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Malay

Peranakan

Serui
Malay

Other creoles and pidgins

Cocos
Malay

Javindo

Petjo

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Iha

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Onin

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